The relationship between leisure involvement and social inclusion among Chinese older adults: the mediating roles of flow experience and fear of missing out

In an era of rapidly aging global populations, understanding the factors that foster well-being and social integration among older adults is paramount. A recent study conducted in Zhejiang Province, China, sheds crucial light on the intricate relationship between leisure involvement and social inclusion among this demographic, uncovering the significant mediating roles of flow experience and the fear of missing out (FoMO). The research, involving 432 participants aged 55 and above, reveals that engaging in leisure activities not only directly promotes social inclusion but also does so through distinct emotional pathways: fostering immersive experiences and mitigating anxieties.

Introduction: The Growing Imperative of Social Inclusion in Aging Societies

By 2050, it is projected that older adults will constitute approximately 14% of the global population, underscoring the increasing societal focus on promoting well-being in later life. Social inclusion (SI) is recognized as a critical component of this well-being, enabling individuals, particularly vulnerable groups, to participate fully in social life and maintain a sense of belonging. For older adults, higher levels of social inclusion are consistently linked to improved life satisfaction, greater access to social support, and enhanced mental health. However, various barriers, including the digital divide, health limitations, and unequal resource access, often hinder participation and contribute to social exclusion. Consequently, enhancing social inclusion has become a central objective in gerontological research and practice.

Leisure activity has emerged as a significant factor in promoting well-being during later life. It is associated with the development of stronger social networks, the cultivation of enjoyable and fulfilling experiences, and the creation of opportunities for social interaction, thereby contributing to social inclusion. While previous research has highlighted the benefits of leisure involvement (LI), limited studies have directly investigated its association with social inclusion among older adults, and even fewer have explored the underlying psychological mechanisms driving this relationship. This study aims to bridge this gap by examining whether leisure involvement predicts social inclusion and, crucially, by elucidating the psychological pathways through which this connection operates.

Unpacking the Psychological Mechanisms: Flow Experience and Fear of Missing Out

Despite the growing recognition of leisure as a vital resource in later life, empirical research into its underlying emotional mechanisms remains relatively limited. Specifically, the positive influence of Flow Experience (FE) and the potential negative impact of Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) have rarely been jointly investigated within older populations. While much of the existing FoMO research has focused on adolescents and young adults, a critical gap exists in understanding its manifestation and consequences in later life, particularly within rapidly digitalizing societies like China.

However, emerging evidence suggests that FoMO is not exclusively a phenomenon of younger generations. Studies involving older adults indicate that FoMO can indeed be observed in later life and may be linked to emotional vulnerability and relational insecurity. This phenomenon is further contextualized by Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST), which posits that as individuals perceive their future time as limited, they tend to prioritize emotionally meaningful goals over information-seeking or broad social expansion. This shift in motivation, which leads older adults to focus on maintaining positive affect and optimizing emotional regulation, may influence how FoMO operates in later life, potentially altering its psychological pathways and overall impact compared to younger age groups.

Based on these insights, this study proposes that leisure involvement may foster social inclusion through two distinct emotional routes: a positive experiential pathway characterized by flow, and a potentially anxiety-driven pathway involving FoMO. A dual-path mediational model is therefore tested to clarify these underlying mechanisms.

Leisure Involvement: A Foundation for Social Connection

Leisure Involvement (LI) is defined as the degree of psychological and behavioral engagement individuals invest in their leisure pursuits. High levels of LI are associated with improved physical and mental health, expanded social networks, and greater self-expression and life satisfaction. The Active Aging Theory underscores the role of leisure participation in supporting social engagement and mental well-being among older adults. By providing shared activities, LI fosters a sense of belonging and can reduce feelings of loneliness. Furthermore, from a social identity perspective, involvement in interest-based groups can cultivate collective identity and enhance social inclusion. Prior evidence indicates that older adults derive identity and inclusion from participation in leisure groups and community clubs, suggesting that LI is a significant predictor of higher SI.

Hypothesis 1: Leisure involvement positively predicts social inclusion.

The Mediating Role of Flow Experience: Immersion and Engagement

Flow Experience (FE) refers to a state of deep absorption characterized by intense concentration, immersion, and a temporary loss of self-consciousness. It is linked to enhanced intrinsic motivation, creativity, and subjective well-being. Leisure activities that strike an optimal balance between an individual’s skills and the challenges presented by the activity are particularly conducive to inducing flow states. Research using experience sampling methods has demonstrated that flow experiences occur in the daily lives of older adults and are closely associated with leisure contexts and social settings.

For older adults, participation in meaningful leisure activities is associated with improved social interaction and reduced anxiety and loneliness, thereby creating favorable conditions for experiencing flow. Beyond its intrapersonal benefits, empirical evidence suggests that flow experience positively correlates with participative and sharing behaviors in social contexts, indicating that individuals experiencing flow are more likely to engage actively with others.

Within the framework of socioemotional development in later life, older adults increasingly prioritize emotionally meaningful and satisfying interactions. In this context, the positive affect and sense of competence generated during flow experiences can enhance perceived self-efficacy, improve the quality of social interactions, and reinforce feelings of belonging within social groups. Through these psychological pathways, flow experiences can contribute to stronger social integration and a greater sense of social inclusion, positioning FE as a positive emotional pathway linking LI to SI.

Hypothesis 2: Flow experience plays a mediating role between leisure involvement and social inclusion.

The Mediating Role of Fear of Missing Out: Anxiety and Social Comparison

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) is defined as the anxiety stemming from the belief that others are having more rewarding experiences and the pervasive desire to remain continually connected with others. While initially conceptualized in younger populations, FoMO has increasingly been observed among older adults, particularly with the expansion of digital engagement and social media use. Emerging research indicates that FoMO in later life may be associated with emotional vulnerability, relational insecurity, and reduced psychological well-being. It has also been linked to heightened negative affect, lower emotional stability, and decreased life satisfaction.

From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory, unmet psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness can intensify FoMO. Leisure involvement, when intrinsically motivated, can help satisfy these needs, thereby reducing socially driven anxiety. However, when leisure participation is externally motivated or accompanied by upward social comparison, individuals may become more sensitive to others’ experiences, potentially amplifying FoMO.

Psychologically, elevated FoMO can negatively impact social and emotional functioning. A persistent concern about exclusion may increase social comparison tendencies and an attentional focus on perceived deficits, thereby reducing satisfaction with one’s own participation experiences. Furthermore, FoMO-related anxiety can be associated with poorer emotion regulation and decreased perceived social belonging, ultimately weakening an individual’s sense of inclusion within social groups. In older adults, who increasingly prioritize emotionally meaningful interactions, such anxiety-driven engagement may be particularly misaligned with their motivational goals, potentially diminishing the positive impact of leisure involvement on social integration. Accordingly, FoMO may operate as a negative emotional pathway linking LI to SI.

Hypothesis 3: Fear of missing out plays a mediating role between leisure involvement and social inclusion.

This study proposes and tests a dual-path mediation model to examine whether leisure involvement predicts social inclusion in older adults and to test the mediating roles of flow experience and fear of missing out.

Methodology: A Mixed-Mode Approach to Data Collection

To ensure adequate statistical power and enhance representativeness, this study employed a mixed-mode data collection strategy combining offline and online survey methods. This approach aimed to mitigate potential sampling bias associated with digital access while increasing coverage of community-dwelling older adults.

Offline questionnaires were administered in six residential communities in Zhejiang Province, China, through collaboration with local community committees. Participants were recruited at community activity centers, parks, and organized social activity venues. Trained research assistants provided assistance as needed. A total of 258 valid offline questionnaires were collected, representing 59.72% of the final sample.

Online questionnaires were distributed via eight community-based WeChat groups primarily composed of local residents aged 55 and above. With the permission of group administrators, the online sample yielded 174 valid responses (40.28% of the final sample). The questionnaire content was identical across both modes to ensure measurement equivalence. Prior to data integration, responses were screened for completeness and logical consistency. Statistical tests confirmed no significant differences between offline and online respondents on key demographic variables, supporting the merging of the datasets.

All participants provided informed consent, and the study adhered to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Personal information was anonymized and handled with strict confidentiality. The inclusion criteria required participants to be aged 55 years or older and residing in the selected communities. A total of 432 valid questionnaires were retained for analysis, comprising 203 males (47.00%) and 229 females (53.00%).

The lower age threshold of 55 was chosen to align with China’s statutory retirement policy and the associated lifestyle transition, capturing a cohort experiencing shifts in social roles and digital engagement. A sensitivity analysis confirmed that including individuals aged 55-64 did not materially influence the overall findings compared to those aged 65 and above, and age was controlled in subsequent analyses.

Measures: Validated Scales for Robust Assessment

Several validated scales were employed to measure the study constructs:

• Leisure Involvement (LI): The revised Chinese version of the Activity Involvement Scale by Kyle et al. (2003), as translated and adapted by Xie et al. (2022), was used. This 13-item scale assesses attraction, centrality, and self-expression related to leisure activities. It demonstrated good reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.82) and validity in the current study.

• Flow Experience (FE): The revised Chinese version of the Flow Experience Scale by Voelkl and Ellis (1998), adapted by Liu and Xue (2021), was utilized. This 12-item scale measures control, focused attention, and intrinsic interest in leisure activities, exhibiting strong reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.92) and validity.

• Fear of Missing Out (FoMO): The revised Chinese version of the Fear of Missing Out Scale by Przybylski et al. (2013), adapted by Cui et al. (2024), was employed. This 10-item scale assesses anxiety about missing rewarding social experiences, showing adequate reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.88) and validity.

• Social Inclusion (SI): The revised Chinese version of the Social Inclusion Scale by Secker et al. (2009), adapted by Chang et al. (2023), was used. This 17-item scale measures social isolation, social relations, and social acceptance, demonstrating satisfactory reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.83) and validity.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and the Fornell-Larcker criterion were used to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of the measures.

Data Analysis: Unveiling the Mediational Pathways

Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS (Version 27.0) and AMOS (Version 28.0). Descriptive statistics and Pearson’s correlation analyses were performed to examine associations among the study variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used to assess the measurement model, with criteria for factor loadings, Composite Reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) set at accepted thresholds. Discriminant validity was examined using the Fornell-Larcker criterion. Multicollinearity was assessed using Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values, which were all below the acceptable threshold of 5.0.

To test the proposed mediation model, PROCESS Macro (Model 4; Hayes, 2013) was applied. Leisure Involvement (LI) was the independent variable, Social Inclusion (SI) was the dependent variable, and Flow Experience (FE) and Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) served as parallel mediators. Gender was included as a control variable. Indirect effects were estimated using bias-corrected bootstrap procedures with 5,000 resamples to determine statistical significance.

Results: A Dual Pathway to Social Inclusion

The findings of this study reveal a multifaceted relationship between leisure involvement and social inclusion among Chinese older adults.

Direct Association:
The study confirmed a significant positive direct association between Leisure Involvement (LI) and Social Inclusion (SI) (r = 0.43, p < 0.001), supporting Hypothesis 1. This aligns with previous research suggesting that engaging in leisure activities provides opportunities for social interaction, fosters a sense of belonging, and contributes to overall well-being.

Mediating Role of Flow Experience:
Flow Experience (FE) significantly mediated the relationship between LI and SI, supporting Hypothesis 2. The indirect effect through FE was substantial, accounting for approximately 25% of the total effect of LI on SI. The 95% confidence interval for this indirect effect [0.04, 0.21] did not include zero, indicating statistical significance. This suggests that when older adults become deeply immersed and engaged in their leisure activities, experiencing flow, it positively influences their sense of social inclusion. This pathway highlights the importance of the quality of leisure experiences in fostering connection.

Mediating Role of Fear of Missing Out:
Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) also played a statistically significant mediating role between LI and SI, supporting Hypothesis 3. However, the indirect effect through FoMO was considerably smaller than that of FE, accounting for approximately 6.2% of the total effect. The 95% confidence interval for this indirect effect [0.01, 0.06] did not include zero, confirming its significance. This indicates that while FoMO does contribute to the LI-SI relationship, its impact is less pronounced than that of flow experience. The findings suggest that leisure involvement may help mitigate FoMO, which in turn can lead to increased social inclusion.

Partial Mediation:
The mediation analyses indicated that the relationship between LI and SI is partially mediated by both FE and FoMO. After accounting for the indirect effects of FE and FoMO, LI still had a significant direct effect on SI. The total indirect effect was 0.16, representing 31.20% of the total effect. This suggests that while psychological mechanisms are important, other factors also contribute to the link between leisure and social inclusion.

Discussion: Differentiated Emotional Pathways to Inclusion

The findings of this study provide compelling evidence that leisure involvement plays a crucial role in fostering social inclusion among Chinese older adults. Crucially, the research illuminates the distinct emotional pathways through which this association operates.

Leisure Involvement as a Direct Driver of Social Inclusion:
The direct positive association between leisure involvement and social inclusion aligns with established theories such as Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes how leisure activities can fulfill basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, thereby strengthening belonging and group identity. In community settings, leisure offers low-pressure avenues for interaction, helping to combat isolation and promoting a sense of connection. Social comparison theory also suggests that engaging with others in leisure pursuits allows older adults to evaluate their roles, adjust expectations, and ultimately enhance their sense of social inclusion. Activities like sports, arts, and volunteering are instrumental in fostering social skills, promoting acceptance, and encouraging intergenerational interaction, all of which contribute to building inclusive communities.

Flow Experience: The Dominant Pathway to Inclusion:
The significant mediating role of Flow Experience (FE) underscores its importance as a positive emotional pathway. The substantially larger indirect effect through FE compared to FoMO suggests that the quality of immersive and engaging leisure experiences is a primary driver of social inclusion in later life. When older adults experience flow—characterized by deep concentration, intrinsic interest, and a sense of effortless action—it enhances their social interactions and strengthens their sense of belonging. Activities that optimally balance skill and challenge, such as dancing, calligraphy, or tai chi, facilitate these flow states, leading to greater emotional satisfaction and a stronger sense of identity.

During flow states, individuals often report heightened intrinsic motivation and perceived competence, which can translate into greater self-efficacy in social participation. This enhanced engagement can lead to more meaningful interpersonal interactions, increased responsiveness to others, and reinforced mutual trust. The positive emotional states and sense of mastery derived from flow align well with the age-related motivational goals of older adults, reinforcing sustained participation and deepening social ties. Consequently, FE emerges as a robust mechanism through which leisure involvement contributes to enhanced social inclusion.

Fear of Missing Out: A Modest but Significant Detractor:
The significant, albeit smaller, mediating role of FoMO highlights its potential to undermine social inclusion. FoMO, characterized by anxiety about missing out on rewarding social experiences, can lead to increased social comparison, loneliness, and a diminished sense of belonging. Leisure engagement can counteract FoMO by fostering community affiliation and reducing excessive social comparison. However, the comparatively modest indirect effect of FoMO in this study may be attributed to the principles of Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST). As individuals age and perceive their time as more limited, they tend to prioritize emotionally meaningful experiences and affect regulation over broader social comparison or anxieties about exclusion. This age-related shift in motivation may reduce the influence of FoMO on social inclusion compared to younger age groups.

Complementary Emotional Pathways:
The dual-path model illustrates that leisure involvement influences social inclusion through both enhanced positive emotions (FE) and the attenuation of negative affective states (FoMO). While both pathways are significant, the findings emphasize the predominant role of positive experiential processes, particularly flow, in fostering social inclusion among older adults. The study suggests that engaging in leisure activities can help older adults focus on meaningful engagement rather than social comparison, thereby weakening the impact of FoMO and strengthening their sense of inclusion.

Practical Implications: Guiding Interventions for Active Aging

The findings of this study offer valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners aiming to promote social inclusion through leisure engagement among older adults.

• Prioritize Flow-Inducing Activities: Community programs should focus on designing leisure activities that cater to the diverse interests and functional capacities of older adults, with a deliberate emphasis on facilitating flow experiences. Structured activities that balance challenge and skill, such as arts and crafts, physical exercises, or group learning, are likely to enhance the quality of social interaction and foster a stronger sense of belonging.

• Complementary FoMO Mitigation: While FoMO’s mediating effect is statistically significant, its practical impact is modest. Interventions to address FoMO should be considered complementary. In an increasingly digital world, digital literacy initiatives and inclusive communication practices can help reduce anxieties related to social comparison and perceived exclusion, particularly for those more susceptible to digitally mediated social pressures.

• Foster Meaningful Engagement: Leisure initiatives that promote psychologically meaningful engagement are likely to improve emotional well-being and reduce loneliness. Programs that emphasize autonomy, competence, and meaningful social contact are crucial for supporting the emotional regulation goals that are particularly salient in later life.

• Integrate Leisure into Active Aging Frameworks: Policymakers should integrate leisure involvement into broader active aging strategies by expanding access to community-based leisure facilities, reducing participation barriers, and encouraging intergenerational interaction. Such comprehensive approaches can significantly enhance social participation and the overall quality of life for older adults.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study, while providing valuable insights, has several limitations. The cross-sectional design precludes definitive causal conclusions; longitudinal studies employing cross-lagged designs are needed to establish temporal precedence and explore reciprocal relationships. The sample, drawn from Zhejiang Province, may limit generalizability to other cultural contexts, necessitating replication across diverse populations. The reliance on self-report measures, despite statistical checks, could be subject to common method bias, suggesting the incorporation of multi-source data or behavioral indicators in future research. Finally, while FE and FoMO were examined as mediators, other psychological and contextual factors, such as social support and resilience, may also play significant roles and warrant further investigation in extended models.

Conclusion: Towards a Deeper Understanding of Leisure and Inclusion

This research contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the psychological processes linking leisure engagement to social inclusion in later life. By moving beyond simple associations, the study clarifies how experiential and affective factors operate within this relationship. The findings suggest that meaningful leisure engagement fosters adaptive emotional experiences while mitigating socially oriented concerns, thereby paving pathways toward enhanced social connectedness. These insights extend the discourse on active aging by underscoring the critical importance of internal psychological mechanisms alongside structural opportunities for participation. Ultimately, a focus on the quality of experience and the emotional context of leisure activities holds the key to fostering sustainable social integration and well-being for older adults in our rapidly evolving world.