Core self-evaluations, psychological capital, social comparison, and socioeconomic status: an analysis of Generation Z’s satisfaction in the post-pandemic era

The post-pandemic landscape has ushered in significant shifts across economic, social, and lifestyle spheres, presenting Generation Z with a unique set of challenges and opportunities. While navigating these complexities, this demographic has demonstrated notable adaptations, including enhanced psychological capital and core self-evaluations. As the life and academic satisfaction of Generation Z become increasingly vital concerns for higher education institutions, a recent study delves into the intricate factors influencing these crucial aspects of their well-being. Building on established psychological theories, the research proposes and validates a comprehensive model examining the interplay between core self-evaluations (CSE), psychological capital (PSY), social comparison (SC), and socioeconomic status (SES) in shaping the satisfaction levels of Chinese college students.

The study, published in Frontiers in Psychology, highlights that while CSE and PSY have independently been identified as positive predictors of happiness, their indirect relationship through PSY has been less explored. This research aims to fill that gap by investigating PSY as a mediator, with social comparison and socioeconomic status acting as double moderators in the relationship between CSE and Generation Z’s satisfaction.

Generation Z: Navigating a New Normal

Generation Z, generally defined as individuals born between the mid-to-late 1990s and early 2000s, are characterized as "digital natives" – adept with technology, often well-educated, and demonstrating self-restraint. In China, where academic achievement holds significant cultural importance, the life and academic satisfaction of this generation are paramount for higher education. The COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath have amplified existing pressures. An economic downturn has intensified job market competition, contributing to a phenomenon known as "lying flat" (tang ping) among some young people, signifying a retreat from intense societal pressure. Furthermore, the rise of individualized digital entertainment has, in some instances, supplanted traditional campus culture, potentially leading to increased feelings of loneliness. Educational inequalities, exacerbated by disparities in hardware and network access for online learning, also present ongoing challenges. These multifaceted issues underscore the critical need to understand the drivers of life and academic satisfaction for this cohort.

The Pillars of Well-being: CSE and Psychological Capital

Positive psychology posits that psychological capital (PSY), encompassing efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience, is a crucial resource for individuals facing adversity. This research emphasizes the role of PSY in fostering confidence and courage among Generation Z as they confront post-pandemic challenges. Core self-evaluations (CSE), a broader construct representing an individual’s fundamental appraisal of their self-worth and abilities, also play a significant role. CSE comprises dimensions such as self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability (or lack of neuroticism). Previous studies have linked CSE to various positive outcomes, including work success, job fit, work engagement, and reduced burnout.

While both CSE and PSY have been individually linked to well-being and satisfaction, this study specifically investigates how CSE influences satisfaction indirectly through PSY. The theoretical underpinnings draw from positive psychology, social cognitive theory, and social comparison theory. Social cognitive theory, developed by Albert Bandura, highlights the reciprocal interaction between individuals, their behavior, and their environment. Self-efficacy, a key component of this theory, refers to an individual’s belief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments. Social comparison theory, originally proposed by Leon Festinger, suggests that individuals evaluate their own worth by comparing themselves to others. This inherent human tendency, amplified by the pervasive nature of social media, can significantly influence self-perception and emotional states.

Moderating Influences: Social Comparison and Socioeconomic Status

The research posits that social comparison acts as a moderator, potentially influencing how CSE translates into PSY and, subsequently, satisfaction. In the highly connected world of Generation Z, social media platforms often become arenas for comparison, which can lead to negative emotions and diminished self-identity if not managed effectively. The study hypothesizes that higher levels of social comparison will weaken the positive relationship between CSE and PSY.

Similarly, socioeconomic status (SES) is examined as another crucial moderator. SES, encompassing economic resources, educational attainment, and occupational prestige, is a well-established factor influencing well-being. While some research suggests a direct link between higher SES and positive psychological states, this study explores its moderating role in the CSE-PSY pathway. It is hypothesized that lower SES may diminish an individual’s self-esteem and optimism, thereby weakening the positive impact of CSE on PSY and subsequent satisfaction.

Methodology and Findings

The study surveyed 753 Chinese college students from diverse academic disciplines and institutions in the southeastern coastal region of China. Participants completed questionnaires measuring CSE, PSY, social comparison, socioeconomic status, life satisfaction, and academic satisfaction. Rigorous statistical analyses, including confirmatory factor analysis and mediation/moderation analyses using SPSS and the lavaan package in R, were employed to test the proposed hypotheses.

Key findings from the study include:

• Mediating Role of Psychological Capital: Psychological capital (PSY) was found to significantly mediate the relationship between Core Self-Evaluations (CSE) and both life satisfaction and academic satisfaction. This suggests that individuals with higher CSE tend to develop stronger psychological capital, which in turn positively influences their overall life and academic contentment. Notably, PSY fully mediated the relationship between CSE and academic satisfaction, indicating that PSY is the primary pathway through which CSE impacts students’ academic experiences.

• Moderating Role of Social Comparison: The relationship between CSE and PSY was found to be negatively moderated by social comparison. This means that the positive impact of CSE on PSY is diminished when individuals engage in higher levels of social comparison. The study’s results indicated that a lower level of social comparison was associated with a stronger indirect effect of CSE on both life and academic satisfaction via PSY. This supports the idea that while social comparison can be a double-edged sword, its negative effects are more pronounced when individuals have lower CSE.

• Moderating Role of Socioeconomic Status: Socioeconomic status (SES) positively moderated the relationship between CSE and PSY. Higher SES was associated with a stronger positive relationship between CSE and PSY. Furthermore, the indirect effects of CSE on life and academic satisfaction through PSY were stronger for individuals with higher socioeconomic status. This suggests that a favorable socioeconomic background can amplify the benefits of strong CSE and PSY on overall satisfaction.

The analysis revealed that low social comparison and high socioeconomic status can strengthen the positive influence of CSE on Generation Z’s satisfaction. The study’s detailed results, presented in various tables and figures within the original research, offer robust statistical evidence for these relationships. For instance, correlation analyses showed significant positive associations between CSE and PSY, life satisfaction, and academic satisfaction, as well as between PSY and both satisfaction measures. Conversely, social comparison exhibited a negative correlation with CSE but a positive correlation with PSY and satisfaction levels, indicating a complex interaction.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

The research contributes significantly to theoretical understanding by validating the mediating role of PSY and the moderating roles of SC and SES in the CSE-satisfaction linkage for Generation Z. It offers a nuanced perspective on social comparison theory, suggesting that while downward social comparison can sometimes lead to increased optimism and satisfaction, its detrimental effects on CSE are considerable. The study also extends social cognitive theory by highlighting the importance of SES in shaping individual well-being.

From a practical standpoint, the findings underscore the importance of fostering both CSE and PSY among Generation Z. Educational institutions and families can implement strategies to enhance students’ self-belief, resilience, hope, and optimism. For example, promoting self-reflection exercises, mindfulness practices, and resilience-building workshops can be beneficial. Given the negative impact of high social comparison, educators and parents should guide young people to engage with social media more critically, focusing on personal growth rather than incessant comparison. Furthermore, acknowledging the influence of SES, interventions aimed at reducing educational and economic disparities could indirectly bolster the well-being of students from disadvantaged backgrounds. The study suggests that when socioeconomic status is high and social comparison is low, the positive effects of CSE on satisfaction are maximized.

Conclusion and Future Directions

In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing the life and academic satisfaction of Generation Z in the post-pandemic era. It establishes that core self-evaluations and psychological capital are central to well-being, with their relationship further shaped by social comparison and socioeconomic status. The findings offer valuable insights for educators, policymakers, and parents seeking to support the holistic development and satisfaction of this crucial demographic.

While the study provides robust evidence, it also acknowledges limitations. The focus on Generation Z in Southeast China may limit generalizability to other cultural contexts. Future research could benefit from cross-cultural comparisons and longitudinal designs to capture developmental changes. Addressing potential common method bias through multi-source data collection would also strengthen future investigations. As society continues to evolve, ongoing research into the evolving needs and challenges of each generation will remain essential for fostering a supportive and fulfilling environment for all.