Psychometric properties of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Ecuadorian older adults: a comparative analysis of one-factor, two-factor, and three-factor models

Mental health researchers and clinical psychologists are placing renewed emphasis on suicide prevention strategies tailored to the elderly, particularly in Latin America, where epidemiological data highlight unique regional vulnerabilities. A comprehensive new psychometric study published in Frontiers in Psychology evaluates the effectiveness of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) among older adults in Ecuador. By assessing the psychological construct of hopelessness—a primary precursor to depression and suicide—the research provides critical validation for mental health professionals working in geriatric, community, and clinical settings across the region.

Global suicide mortality statistics underscore the urgency of targeted mental health screening in later life. According to recent Global Burden of Disease estimates, suicide remains a significant global public health challenge, ranking as the twenty-first leading cause of death worldwide in 2021. Notably, approximately 16.6% of all suicide-related fatalities occur among individuals aged 70 years and older. While chronic non-communicable diseases remain the predominant cause of mortality in this age group, the absolute number of suicide deaths has risen due to global population growth. Unlike regions where age-standardized suicide rates have generally declined, the Americas have experienced concerning increases over recent decades, driven by contextual factors such as socioeconomic inequality, limited mental health infrastructure, and social isolation.

In Ecuador, longitudinal research has revealed notable territorial and demographic variations in suicide rates, with older men experiencing a disproportionately higher burden. Factors such as retirement, widowhood, functional dependency, chronic pain, and a perceived loss of life meaning frequently exacerbate psychological distress in this population. Consequently, clinicians require reliable, culturally adapted tools to identify emotional vulnerability and assess suicide risk early.

Evaluating the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Later Life

The Beck Hopelessness Scale, originally developed by Aaron Beck and colleagues in 1974, is one of the most widely utilized instruments for measuring negative expectations about the future, loss of motivation, and pessimistic attitudes. However, psychometric experts have long emphasized that psychological scales cannot be assumed to function identically across different cultures, age groups, and educational backgrounds.

To determine the most appropriate structural model for Ecuadorian older adults, researchers conducted a large-scale, quantitative, and cross-sectional instrumental study. The research team assessed 2,233 community-dwelling older adults residing in the city of Cuenca, Ecuador, between 2023 and 2024. Participants had a mean age of 74.02 years, with a demographic breakdown reflecting a higher proportion of women (60%) compared to men (40%). The majority of participants identified as Mestizo (94.9%), were married or in a common-law union (54.5%), and had completed primary education (47.6%).

The study rigorously tested five competing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models: a one-factor model, a correlated two-factor model, a correlated three-factor model, a two-factor structure model, and a second-order model. To account for the ordinal nature of the scale’s dichotomous response format, analyses utilized the Diagonally Weighted Least Squares (DWLS) estimator. Prior to confirmatory testing, five items exhibiting extreme response frequencies and low exploratory factor loadings (D2, D7, D11, D14, and D18) were excluded, leaving 15 items for the final psychometric evaluation.

Comparative Psychometric Findings and Model Performance

The confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the one-, two-, three-, and second-order models all demonstrated robust and highly comparable global fit indices. The three-factor and second-order models yielded identical fit metrics (CFI = 0.989, TLI = 0.987, RMSEA = 0.078, SRMR = 0.074), while the one-factor model presented a slightly more favorable Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA = 0.076).

Because all models adequately reproduced the underlying data structure, researchers ultimately highlighted the one-factor model as the most appropriate choice due to its superior parsimony, interpretability, and ability to generate a stable total score. Internal consistency for the one-factor model was exceptionally high, demonstrated by a McDonald’s omega ($omega$) of 0.933 and a Cronbach’s alpha ($alpha$) of 0.909. Convergent validity was further supported by an average variance extracted (AVE) of 0.657, well above the standard threshold of 0.50.

Furthermore, measurement invariance testing demonstrated that the one-factor model maintained scalar invariance across different marital statuses, specifically comparing married participants and widowed individuals. Interestingly, latent mean comparisons indicated significantly lower levels of hopelessness among widowed participants relative to those who were married or in a common-law union—a finding that challenges generalized assumptions regarding grief and isolation in later life and warrants further sociological investigation.

Implications for Gerontological Care and Public Health Policy

The publication of this validation study marks a vital step forward for mental health assessment in Andean South America. By confirming the reliability and validity of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in Ecuadorian older adults, the research provides practitioners with an evidence-based instrument for routine clinical screenings.

Public health officials and gerontological specialists note that early identification of hopelessness is paramount for preventing self-harm and severe depressive episodes in older populations. With a validated tool now firmly established for the local demographic context, healthcare providers can better design targeted psychosocial interventions, allocate mental health resources efficiently, and improve the overall quality of life for aging populations across Ecuador and the broader Latin American region.