Psychometric Properties of the Japanese Parenting Style Scale (JPSS) Between Mothers and Fathers in West Java, Indonesia

A recent study has rigorously evaluated the psychometric properties of the Indonesian version of the Japanese Parenting Style Scale (JPSS), shedding light on its suitability for assessing parenting styles among mothers and fathers in West Java, Indonesia. The research, published in Frontiers in Psychology, underscores the importance of culturally adapted measurement tools and highlights nuanced differences in parenting perceptions between mothers and fathers, while also identifying potential biases that warrant careful consideration in future research and practice.

Key Findings and Context

The study successfully adapted the JPSS, originally developed to capture parenting styles in Japan, for an Indonesian context. The adapted scale assesses four dimensions: warmth, hostility, permissiveness, and harsh control. Through a series of psychometric analyses, including Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and the Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) method, researchers aimed to establish the reliability and validity of the Indonesian JPSS and investigate potential differences and measurement biases between mothers and fathers.

Discipline in parenting is a cornerstone of child development, significantly influencing behavior, self-regulation, and the transmission of societal values. Effective discipline, characterized by clear expectations and consistent consequences, not only corrects undesirable behavior but also fosters emotional control and prepares children for responsible adulthood. Positive discipline strategies, such as reasoning and autonomy support, are linked to better emotional regulation and mental well-being. Conversely, harsh discipline can have detrimental long-term effects, increasing the risk of aggressive attitudes and behaviors in adulthood.

Understanding the distinct yet complementary roles of mothers and fathers in child-rearing is crucial for optimal child development. While mothers are often primary caregivers, fathers contribute through emotional support and engaging parenting styles. The evolution of fatherhood has seen a shift from traditional disciplinary roles towards more involved and gentle approaches. Research indicates mothers tend to discipline more frequently, often employing positive strategies, particularly in early childhood. Fathers’ involvement in both positive and negative discipline significantly predicts children’s behavior control, with harsh paternal discipline being particularly linked to increased child aggression.

The cultural context of Indonesia, with its emphasis on relational harmony and situational flexibility in discipline, presents a unique landscape for parenting styles. This contrasts with Japan’s emphasis on amae (emotional dependence) and shitsuke (internalized discipline). Therefore, adapting and validating instruments like the JPSS for the Indonesian population is essential to ensure their relevance and applicability, especially when comparing the contributions of mothers and fathers.

Methodology and Adaptation Process

The research involved 829 parents of preschool-aged children from Tasikmalaya, Bandung, and Cimahi in West Java, Indonesia. A convenience sampling method was employed. The study utilized Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to test the factor structure of the Indonesian JPSS, employing the Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimator. Internal consistency was assessed using McDonald’s omega coefficients, a measure considered more robust than Cronbach’s alpha for scales that do not assume tau-equivalence.

To detect differential item functioning (DIF) – where an item behaves differently for different groups even when they have the same underlying trait level – the researchers employed the Multiple Indicators Multiple Causes (MIMIC) method. This approach allowed for the examination of item bias between mothers and fathers, a critical step for ensuring that comparisons between these groups are valid.

The original JPSS, consisting of 28 items across four factors (warmth, hostility, permissiveness, and harsh control), underwent a rigorous adaptation process. This involved forward-backward translation and expert review for content validity, adhering to the guidelines set by the International Test Commission (ITC). Each item was rated on a six-point Likert scale.

Results: Unpacking Parenting Dimensions

The initial CFA indicated that the original 28-item JPSS model did not fit the Indonesian data well. Through model diagnostics and the deletion of four items (i18, i21, i23, and i26) that showed potential cross-loadings, a revised 24-item model achieved acceptable fit indices in both cross-validation samples. This suggests that while the core structure of the JPSS is broadly applicable, certain items required refinement to align with the Indonesian cultural context.

Reliability estimates for the four dimensions of the adapted scale were found to be adequate to excellent, with omega coefficients (ω) ranging from 0.70 to 0.92. Specifically, the warmth dimension showed the highest reliability (ω = 0.92), followed by hostility (ω = 0.89), harsh control (ω = 0.79), and permissiveness (ω = 0.70). The slightly lower reliability for permissiveness, which also had fewer items, is a common finding in psychometric research and may warrant future attention.

Inter-factor correlations revealed expected patterns: a negative association between warmth and hostility, consistent with the notion that emotional warmth inhibits aggressive expressions. Notably, the negative correlation between warmth and hostility was less pronounced in the Indonesian sample compared to Japanese validation studies. A moderate positive correlation was observed between warmth and harsh control, suggesting a culturally specific "authoritative" parenting configuration where emotional closeness coexists with firm boundary enforcement. This contrasts with a strict dichotomy between warmth and strictness.

Differential Item Functioning (DIF) and Parental Differences

The MIMIC model analysis revealed significant differences in how mothers and fathers responded to certain items, indicating measurement bias. Specifically, in the warmth dimension, three items (Items 1, 5, and 7) showed differential item functioning based on parental gender.

• Item 1 and Item 5: Fathers reported lower scores on "Trying to play with the child" and "Staying calm and caring when the child cries" compared to mothers, even at equivalent levels of latent warmth. This is interpreted as a reflection of enduring social constructions of gender roles, where mothers are often primary caregivers and spend more time in direct interactive engagement. Fathers, while increasingly involved, may have historically reduced levels of paternal inclusion in terms of duration and intensity of direct caregiving.
• Item 7: Fathers also reported lower scores on "Spending as much time as possible with the child." This disparity further underscores the impact of traditional gender roles on time investment in childcare, with mothers typically carrying a larger share of direct childcare responsibilities.

While mothers reported higher mean latent scores on both warmth and hostility compared to fathers, no significant differences were found for permissiveness and harsh control. These observed differences in warmth and hostility are attributed to normative and legal expectations in Indonesia, where mothers are often more deeply involved in daily caregiving and disciplinary interactions, as stipulated by laws concerning marital responsibilities. This can lead to mothers expressing both higher levels of emotional warmth and occasional hostile responses when control is asserted.

Discussion: Cultural Nuances and Measurement Implications

The study’s findings underscore the critical need for cultural adaptation of measurement tools. The deletion of specific items from the JPSS highlights how cultural and semantic nuances can influence the interpretation and reflection of latent constructs. For instance, items intended to measure permissiveness were perceived differently, overlapping with warmth or parental responsibility in the Indonesian context. Similarly, items related to harsh control might be interpreted as practical instructions rather than consistent disciplinary styles due to collectivistic family norms.

The presence of DIF in the warmth dimension has significant implications for direct comparisons of raw scores between mothers and fathers. Without accounting for this measurement bias, analyses could systematically overstate differences in maternal warmth. Researchers are advised to utilize latent variable modeling or implement item-adjusted scores when examining gender differences in parenting styles.

The study also noted a moderate positive correlation between warmth and harsh control, which challenges a strict dichotomy between these constructs. This pattern may reflect a culturally specific "authoritative" parenting style prevalent in collectivistic societies, where emotional closeness is balanced with firm boundary enforcement to maintain family harmony.

Practical Implications and Future Directions

The Indonesian version of the JPSS shows promise for assessing parenting styles, but its application requires careful consideration. Researchers and practitioners should be aware of the potential for raw score bias when comparing mothers and fathers. The moderate association between warmth and harsh control emphasizes the importance of interpreting these constructs within local sociocultural frameworks. The lower reliability of the permissiveness factor suggests caution when drawing conclusions from this dimension and may prompt the development of additional items in future adaptations.

The study’s limitations include reliance on self-report data, which can be subject to social desirability bias, and the inductive interpretation of statistical findings. The lack of qualitative data means that sociocultural explanations for DIF and inter-factor correlations remain tentative. Future research should incorporate mixed-methods approaches, such as qualitative interviews or cognitive debriefing, to validate the interpretations and gain a deeper understanding of how Indonesian parents perceive and enact their parenting styles. Further research should also aim for more diverse samples to enhance generalizability and formally test measurement invariance across different subgroups within Indonesia.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Indonesian adaptation of the Japanese Parenting Style Scale (JPSS) demonstrates promising psychometric properties for assessing parenting styles in West Java. However, comparisons between mothers and fathers require caution due to identified item-level measurement non-equivalence, particularly within the warmth dimension. By acknowledging these nuances and employing appropriate statistical methods, researchers can more accurately understand the complex landscape of parenting in Indonesia and contribute to evidence-based practices that support healthy child development.