Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ-C) Among Table Tennis Athletes in Shandong, China

A significant advancement in understanding the emotional landscape of young athletes in China has been marked by the successful validation of the Chinese Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ-C). This comprehensive study, conducted among adolescent table tennis players in Shandong Province, confirms that the SEQ-C is a reliable and valid instrument for assessing pre-training emotional states, paving the way for more targeted psychological support and intervention strategies within the Chinese sporting context. The research, published in Frontiers in Psychology, addresses a critical need for culturally adapted assessment tools in sports psychology.

The Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ), originally developed by Jones et al. (2005), is a well-established multidimensional tool designed to capture the complex emotional experiences of athletes prior to competition. It comprises 22 items distributed across five key dimensions: anxiety, dejection, excitement, anger, and happiness. Its established psychometric properties in various Western and some Asian contexts have made it a cornerstone of sport psychology research globally. However, the need for its validation within the specific cultural and linguistic framework of China has remained a significant research gap.

This study, led by Liu, Kuan, and Kueh, sought to bridge this gap by rigorously testing the Chinese-translated version of the SEQ. The research involved a substantial sample of 670 adolescent table tennis athletes, aged between 15 and 18 years, from the Jining Youth Table Tennis Training Base in Shandong Province, China. Following rigorous data screening, 656 valid responses were retained for analysis, representing a high response rate of 97.9%, underscoring the participants’ engagement with the research.

Rigorous Validation Process

The translation process for the SEQ-C adhered to established international standards, employing a meticulous translation-back-translation procedure. This involved fluent bilingual experts translating the original English version into Chinese, followed by independent back-translation to ensure semantic equivalence and conceptual integrity. A panel of experts in sport psychology, health psychology, and sports training then reviewed the translated versions to guarantee conceptual consistency and cultural appropriateness. A pilot test with 20 athletes further confirmed the clarity and applicability of the questionnaire for the target demographic.

The data collection, conducted in September 2024, utilized a mixed-mode approach, combining online and offline methods to ensure maximum accessibility for all participants. Researchers ensured that ethical research standards were upheld, with approval obtained from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia. Informed consent was secured from all participants, with parental consent obtained for those under 18, alongside their assent.

Statistical analysis involved a series of robust psychometric evaluations. Common method bias was assessed using Harman’s single-factor test, which indicated that such bias was not a significant concern, with the first factor explaining less than the 50% threshold. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was then employed to examine the underlying factor structure of the SEQ-C. The Kiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy yielded an excellent score of 0.937, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant (p < 0.001), confirming the suitability of the data for factor analysis. EFA identified five factors, consistent with the original SEQ, which collectively explained 68.945% of the total variance. All items demonstrated factor loadings above 0.55, indicating a clear and stable factor structure aligned with the theoretical dimensions of anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, and happiness.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was subsequently conducted to test the hypothesized five-factor measurement model. The results demonstrated a strong model fit, with key indices meeting or exceeding established benchmarks: Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) at 0.042 (90% CI: 0.037, 0.048), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) at 0.026, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) at 0.971, and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) at 0.966. These indices collectively suggest that the proposed five-factor structure of the SEQ-C is well-supported by the data from Chinese adolescent table tennis players.

Construct Validity and Reliability

Further assessment of construct validity and reliability yielded highly positive results. Composite Reliability (CR) values for each factor ranged from 0.827 to 0.898, indicating high internal consistency. Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.544 to 0.638, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.50, which signifies adequate convergent validity. Discriminant validity was also affirmed, as all inter-factor correlations were below the 0.85 limit, confirming that the five emotional dimensions are distinct from one another.

The study’s findings align with the original SEQ’s robust psychometric properties, reinforcing the notion that core emotional experiences in competitive sports can transcend cultural boundaries. However, the research also acknowledges variations observed in previous international validation studies. For instance, some studies, such as those conducted in Turkey and several African countries, have reported different factor structures or hierarchical models. The current study’s retention of the original five-factor structure without item removal suggests that the SEQ-C is a faithful and accurate representation of the original instrument’s conceptual framework within the studied Chinese population.

The researchers attribute these variations to several factors, including potential differences in cultural backgrounds, which significantly influence emotional expression and regulation. Traditional Chinese values, emphasizing emotional moderation and self-restraint, may shape how athletes perceive and report their emotions. Furthermore, the specific sample characteristics—adolescent table tennis players in a highly structured training environment—likely contribute to a more consistent and stable emotional profile compared to more heterogeneous athletic populations. Methodological nuances, such as sample size and statistical approaches, also play a role in these cross-study discrepancies.

Implications for Sport Psychology in China

The successful validation of the SEQ-C carries substantial theoretical and practical implications for sport psychology in China. Theoretically, it strengthens the argument for the cross-cultural applicability of the SEQ framework and contributes valuable data to the understanding of emotional assessment among adolescent athletes within a distinct cultural context.

Practically, the SEQ-C provides coaches, sport psychologists, and researchers with a validated, reliable, and culturally relevant tool to assess athletes’ emotional states. This capability is crucial for developing targeted psychological interventions and effective emotion regulation strategies. By accurately identifying prevalent emotional states such as anxiety, dejection, or excitement, practitioners can better support athletes’ psychological well-being and optimize their performance. The ease of administration and cost-effectiveness of the SEQ-C also make it suitable for large-scale implementation in training facilities and pre-competition settings across China.

Addressing Research Limitations and Future Directions

Despite its significant contributions, the study acknowledges certain limitations. The sample was confined to young table tennis athletes from a single district in China, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to a broader spectrum of Chinese athletes, including those from different sports, age groups, and competitive levels. Future research is recommended to expand the sample to include a more diverse and representative population to enhance the applicability of the results.

Moreover, the reliance on self-report questionnaires introduces the potential for social desirability bias, where participants might respond in a way that presents them in a more favorable light. While the researchers instructed participants to respond honestly, this remains a consideration. The cross-sectional design also restricts the ability to track changes in emotional states over time. Longitudinal studies are suggested to capture the developmental trajectory of athletes’ emotional experiences, offering more nuanced insights for ongoing support.

Finally, the researchers highlight the importance of future studies conducting measurement invariance tests. This would further confirm the structural consistency of the SEQ-C across different genders and age groups within China, solidifying its validity and cross-group applicability.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study definitively establishes the psychometric properties of the Chinese Sport Emotion Questionnaire (SEQ-C) among adolescent table tennis athletes in Shandong Province, China. The findings confirm that the SEQ-C, comprising 22 items across five dimensions—anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, and happiness—is a valid and reliable instrument. This validation empowers researchers, sport psychologists, and coaches with an accurate and culturally appropriate tool to assess the pre-training emotional states of Chinese-speaking athletes. The SEQ-C is poised to play a pivotal role in enhancing the understanding and management of athletes’ emotions, thereby contributing to their overall psychological well-being and athletic development within China’s competitive sports landscape.