Perceived Parental Encouragement on Self-Efficacy and Resilience of Chinese College Students

This study examined the role of perceived parental encouragement (PPE) in self-efficacy and resilience among Mainland Chinese college students and whether family environmental factors moderated these associations. A cross-sectional correlational design was employed, with 185 participants from 48 universities across 18 cities in China completing measures of PPE, self-efficacy, resilience, and family environment factors including Conflict, Cohesion, and Expressiveness. Correlational, regression, and moderation analyses were conducted. The findings indicated that PPE was positively associated with both self-efficacy and resilience and significantly predicted both outcomes. Notably, Family Conflict significantly moderated the association between PPE and resilience, with higher Family Conflict weakening the positive relationship. Family Cohesion and Expressiveness did not significantly moderate the associations between PPE and either outcome. Additional differences were found across gender, only-child status, and city tier. The study concludes that PPE may serve as an important family-related resource for psychological well-being among Chinese college students, but its positive association with resilience may be attenuated in high-conflict family environments. The findings highlight the importance of considering both parental support and family harmony in understanding psychological well-being within the Chinese cultural context.

Introduction to the Psychological Landscape of Chinese Adolescents

In the dynamic landscape of contemporary China, where rapid modernization intersects with deeply ingrained cultural values, understanding the psychological well-being of its youth has become increasingly crucial. Alfred Adler’s concept of encouragement, defined as an action or a state of being that instills respect and confidence, forms a foundational element of social support. This support, when channeled through parental encouragement, plays a pivotal role in adolescent development, influencing autonomy, peer resistance, sociocultural adjustment, academic performance, self-efficacy, and resilience. Emerging research underscores that parental encouragement, interwoven with warmth and involvement, directly bolsters an adolescent’s belief in their ability to surmount challenges, fostering a positive self-concept and a proactive stance towards life’s obstacles.

Self-efficacy, the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute actions to achieve desired outcomes, and resilience, the capacity to recover and thrive amidst adversity, are paramount for adolescent well-being and adaptive functioning. Studies have consistently linked perceived parental encouragement to the development of robust self-efficacy, which in turn enhances performance across academic, professional, and behavioral domains. Conversely, a deficiency in parental support has been associated with increased psychological distress and emotional difficulties. Encouragement can manifest through verbal affirmations, non-verbal cues, and demonstrated interest, but its effectiveness hinges on the adolescent’s internalization of the message. Parental messages are critical during formative years, shaping mental health and academic success.

The family environment itself is a significant determinant of a child’s psychological health. A positive family environment, characterized by high expressiveness and cohesion, and low conflict, is associated with optimized self-esteem and a sense of mastery. Conversely, a lack of cohesion or high conflict can lead to diminished family harmony and heightened depressive symptoms. Drawing upon attachment theory and Ecological Systems Theory, the family exerts the most profound and enduring influence on development, shaping a child’s interaction with their broader environment.

While research has established the efficacy of parental encouragement on children’s development in various contexts, its specific role in the mental health of Chinese adolescents remains under-explored. Chinese youth navigate a complex socio-cultural milieu, balancing high academic expectations, traditional familial obligations, and evolving societal norms. This intricate interplay necessitates a strong focus on psychological wellness. Parental encouragement and support have been found to cultivate feelings of being challenged and supported, thereby enhancing psychological well-being and the capacity to manage stress. Consequently, effective parenting, particularly in the Chinese context, must integrate positive practices like encouragement. This study aims to investigate the role of perceived parental encouragement (PPE) and its impact on self-efficacy and resilience among Chinese college students.

The Nuances of the Chinese Cultural Context

Traditional Chinese parenting, deeply influenced by Confucian values, has historically emphasized parent-centered approaches, prioritizing control, obedience, and academic achievement as indicators of familial honor. This style aims to cultivate virtues such as knowledge, social norms, modesty, self-restraint, filial piety, and harmonious relationships. From a Western psychological perspective, this emphasis on authority and conformity might potentially impinge upon individual autonomy and self-expression, potentially leading to lower self-efficacy. However, a nuanced understanding reveals that Chinese parenting practices are best understood within their cultural context. The concept of guan (管), often translated as "govern" or "discipline," carries a positive connotation of teaching and nurturing, encompassing the provision of care, financial support, and sustenance.

In contemporary China, a significant shift is observable, with parents increasingly embracing emotionally supportive and encouraging practices. Recent studies indicate a blend of traditional discipline with modern encouragement strategies, fostering psychological flexibility and emotional intelligence in children. Supportive parenting styles have been linked to academic resilience, with self-efficacy acting as a potential mediator. This evolution signifies a growing commitment among Chinese parents to their children’s mental health and emotional well-being.

Furthermore, cultural expectations and gendered socialization processes can influence how parental encouragement is perceived and enacted. Recent research on Chinese adolescents highlights variations in family functioning and resilience processes based on gender. Family-based mechanisms, such as psychologically controlling practices and the quality of parent-child relationships, may operate differently for boys, who are often socialized towards independence and competitiveness, and girls, who may focus more on prosocial relationships.

The demographic shift following China’s family planning policies, leading to the prevalence of both only-child and multi-child families, also introduces complexities. Sibling structure and within-family dynamics, including parental differential treatment, can shape children’s perceptions of support and relational security. In multi-child families, variations in parental treatment can impact sibling relationships and the overall emotional climate, influencing psychosocial development. The unique context of growing up without siblings continues to be a significant factor in adolescent development, with potential implications for adult outcomes.

Finally, the categorization of cities into tiers in China reflects regional and urbanization differences that can impact adolescent developmental opportunities and stressors. These city tiers are often considered in studies of psychological well-being, serving as a demographic profile or covariate in models of psychological outcomes. While differences across city tiers are acknowledged, interpretations are generally descriptive, emphasizing the need to understand the broader residential context.

The Present Study’s Objectives and Hypotheses

This study was designed to investigate the role of perceived parental encouragement (PPE) in self-efficacy and resilience among Chinese college students. Additionally, it sought to explore whether family environmental factors – specifically Family Cohesion, Family Conflict, and Family Expressiveness – moderate the associations between encouragement and these psychological outcomes. The researchers hypothesized that PPE would be positively associated with both self-efficacy and resilience. They further posited that Family Expressiveness, Family Conflict, and Family Cohesion would moderate these relationships. Specifically, higher levels of Family Expressiveness and Family Cohesion were expected to strengthen the positive link between PPE and self-efficacy. Conversely, lower levels of Family Conflict were hypothesized to enhance the positive association between PPE and resilience. The study was conducted in Chinese, with results translated into English for publication.

Methodology: A Cross-Sectional Glimpse into Family Dynamics

The study employed a cross-sectional, correlational design, gathering data at a single point in time to examine relationships between variables. Participant recruitment was conducted via online social media platforms, primarily WeChat, attracting volunteers interested in participating in a survey administered through Qualtrics. A comprehensive IRB-approved information statement was presented at the outset, detailing the study’s purpose, the voluntary nature of participation, confidentiality assurances, and researcher contact information. Electronic informed consent was obtained through participants’ affirmative action of proceeding to the survey.

The survey instrument comprised several validated scales: the Parental Autonomy Support Scale (PASS) for perceived parental encouragement (PPE), the Simplified Chinese version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES-CV), the Ten-Item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-Chinese Version (CD-RISC-10-CV), and the Family Environment Scale Chinese Short Version (FES-C-SV). A demographics questionnaire collected information on gender, age, class year, parental marital status, living situation, and city tier.

The sample consisted of 185 college students from 48 universities across 18 cities in China. The participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 25 years. While the majority identified as Han ethnicity, the sample included representation from other ethnic groups. Participants’ academic years spanned from freshman to senior. The sample included both only-child individuals and those with siblings, reflecting China’s evolving family structures. Parental marital status and living situations were also recorded.

Measures: Quantifying Psychological Constructs

Perceived Parental Encouragement (PPE) was measured using the Parental Autonomy Support Scale (PASS). This 12-item scale assesses parental behaviors that convey confidence, validation, positive affirmation, and support for autonomy. Items like "My parents encourage me to be independent" and "My parents allow me to make my own decisions" were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree). The PASS has demonstrated good reliability and validity across diverse cultural contexts, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.90 in this study.

Self-efficacy was assessed using the Simplified Chinese version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES-CV), a 10-item self-report measure. It utilizes a 4-point Likert scale (1=not at all true to 4=exactly true) and yields scores from 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater self-efficacy. The GSES-CV exhibited acceptable internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.89.

Resilience was measured by the Ten-Item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale-Chinese Version (CD-RISC-10-CV). This scale assesses an individual’s capacity to cope with adversity and stress using a 5-point scale (0=not true at all to 4=true nearly all the time). The CD-RISC-10-CV demonstrated acceptable reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.86 in this study.

The Family Environment Scale Chinese Short Version (FES-C-SV) was used to assess the family environment, focusing on three subscales: Cohesion (family helpfulness and togetherness), Expressiveness (openness of verbal expression and emotionality), and Conflict (hostility and aggression). Reliability coefficients for Cohesion, Expressiveness, and Conflict were 0.77, 0.56, and 0.74, respectively, all deemed acceptable.

Results: Unpacking the Interplay of Encouragement and Environment

Descriptive statistics revealed significant positive correlations between Perceived Parental Encouragement (PPE) and both self-efficacy (r = 0.27, p < 0.001) and resilience (r = 0.38, p < 0.001). This initial finding supports the notion that higher levels of parental encouragement are associated with greater psychological strengths in Chinese college students. Furthermore, Family Cohesion (r = 0.31, p < 0.01) and Family Expressiveness (r = 0.35, p < 0.01) showed significant positive correlations with resilience, and similarly with self-efficacy (r = 0.22, p < 0.01 for both). PPE was also strongly correlated with Family Cohesion (r = 0.49, p < 0.01) and Family Expressiveness (r = 0.42, p < 0.01).

Preliminary analyses also unveiled significant gender differences. While there was no significant difference in PPE scores between men and women, women reported stronger positive associations between PPE and both self-efficacy (r = 0.37 for women vs. r = 0.20 for men) and resilience (r = 0.42 for women vs. r = 0.36 for men). This suggests that parental encouragement may have a more pronounced impact on women’s psychological strengths in this sample.

Differences were also noted regarding only-child status. Self-efficacy scores were significantly higher in participants from only-child families compared to those from multi-child families. However, the correlation between PPE and resilience was stronger in multi-child families (r = 0.46) than in only-child families (r = 0.30). Similarly, the correlation between PPE and self-efficacy was positive in multi-child families (r = 0.38) but non-existent in only-child families.

City tier analysis indicated positive correlations between PPE and self-efficacy in first-tier (r = 0.27) and fourth-tier (r = 0.31) cities, and between PPE and resilience in first-tier (r = 0.34) and fourth-tier (r = 0.43) cities. There was a significant difference in self-efficacy scores across city tiers.

The main analysis confirmed that PPE positively predicted self-efficacy (β = 0.18, p < 0.001) and resilience (β = 0.30, p < 0.001).

Moderation Analysis: The Impact of Family Environment

Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to investigate the moderating role of family environment indicators. After applying a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, the results indicated a significant moderation effect of Family Conflict on the relationship between PPE and resilience (B = -0.06, p = 0.005). Specifically, higher levels of Family Conflict were found to weaken the positive association between perceived parental encouragement and resilience. This suggests that while parental encouragement is generally beneficial for resilience, its positive impact is diminished in environments characterized by significant family conflict. No significant moderation effects were found for Family Cohesion or Family Expressiveness on the relationship between PPE and either self-efficacy or resilience.

Discussion: Navigating Cultural and Familial Influences

The findings of this study reinforce the significant role of perceived parental encouragement (PPE) in fostering self-efficacy and resilience among Chinese college students. These results align with existing literature suggesting that parental encouragement cultivates a sense of competence and adaptive coping mechanisms. The observed positive associations are consistent with theoretical frameworks like Ecological Systems Theory, highlighting the profound impact of micro-level interactions, such as parent-child relationships, on broader psychological outcomes. This also reflects a broader societal shift in Chinese parenting practices towards a more balanced approach that incorporates emotional support alongside traditional disciplinary methods.

The observed gender differences, where women reported stronger positive associations between PPE and both self-efficacy and resilience, warrant further exploration. This could be attributed to culturally embedded gender role expectations and socialization processes that may influence how parental encouragement is communicated and interpreted by male and female adolescents. Future research could delve deeper into these cultural messages and their differential impacts.

The findings regarding only-child status suggest a potential ceiling effect for self-efficacy in such families, where intensive parental investment may already establish high self-efficacy, leaving less room for additional encouragement to yield significant gains. In contrast, the stronger correlations between PPE and resilience in multi-child families suggest that parental encouragement may serve as a crucial buffer against intra-family competition and limited parental availability, thereby fostering adaptive coping. This challenges simplistic notions of the "little-emperor" phenomenon and underscores the need to explore supportive strategies tailored to modern Chinese family structures.

The influence of city tier as a contextual indicator also emerged as significant. The positive correlations between PPE and psychological outcomes observed in first-tier and fourth-tier cities suggest that institutional and familial supports, potentially more prevalent in higher-tier contexts, may facilitate autonomy development and coping resources. However, the study acknowledges limitations in fully exploring these differences due to sample size constraints in some city tiers.

The significant moderation effect of Family Conflict on the PPE-resilience link is a critical finding. It underscores the cultural importance of family harmony in China, where peace and concord within the family are traditionally viewed as foundational for success and well-being. High levels of conflict appear to undermine the effectiveness of parental encouragement in bolstering resilience, highlighting the necessity of a harmonious family environment for supportive parenting practices to fully manifest their benefits. The lack of moderation by Family Cohesion and Expressiveness, contrary to hypotheses, may stem from the Western-centric nature of these measures, which might not fully capture the nuances of Chinese family dynamics.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study, while providing valuable insights, is subject to certain limitations. The reliance on online social media for recruitment resulted in a non-probability convenience sample, potentially limiting generalizability to the broader population of Chinese college students. The sample, though geographically diverse, was restricted to college students, potentially excluding individuals with different socioeconomic backgrounds and family environments. Furthermore, the sample sizes for the second and third city tiers were insufficient for in-depth comparative analysis.

Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs to establish causal pathways between PPE, self-efficacy, and resilience. Investigating the role of other family dynamics, such as parental control and warmth, could provide a more comprehensive understanding of familial influences. Cross-cultural comparative studies with broader recruitment channels are needed to assess the universality or specificity of these correlations. Intervention-based research evaluating programs aimed at enhancing PPE and reducing family conflict would be highly beneficial. The development and validation of a culturally adapted scale for measuring PPE could further refine our understanding of this construct.

Conclusion: The Interplay of Support and Harmony

This study unequivocally demonstrates the importance of perceived parental encouragement (PPE) for the psychological well-being of Chinese college students. PPE emerges as a significant factor in bolstering self-efficacy and resilience, even as adolescents navigate increasing independence and developmental pressures. Crucially, the findings underscore that the impact of PPE is not isolated but is significantly influenced by the broader family environment. Ongoing family tension and conflict can impede adolescents’ ability to fully internalize parental support, thereby diminishing its positive effects on psychological well-being. Consequently, PPE appears to be most effective when embedded within a relatively harmonious family setting.

Given the study’s cross-sectional design and convenience sampling, future research should employ longitudinal and multi-site recruitment strategies to offer a more nuanced understanding of how perceived parental encouragement operates within Chinese families. This study contributes to the growing body of research on positive parenting in China by illustrating the link between PPE and psychological well-being among college students, while importantly clarifying that family conflict can constrain these associations. The findings highlight the value of considering both supportive parenting experiences and the overall family context when examining developmental adaptation in Chinese adolescents.